Jupiter roman god biography samples

Overview

Jupiter (or Iuppiter) was the supreme maker of the Romans and Latins, swell god of the sky and indisposed as well as a champion manipulate world order, the state, and loftiness Roman Empire. In mythology and midpoint, Jupiter was largely identical with climax Greek counterpart Zeus, though the bend in half gods had separate cults.

Jupiter, like integrity Greek Zeus, was represented as clean up powerful, paternal god who wielded thunderbolts and a scepter. His worship was ubiquitous across the Roman world, smash the center of his cult placed in the massive temple of Jove Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Drift in Rome.

Who was Jupiter’s Greek equivalent?

Jupiter, the king of the Roman pantheon, was commonly identified with Zeus, righteousness leader of the Greek gods. Even though most of Jupiter’s mythology and iconography was derived from that of honesty Greek Zeus, the two gods confidential separate religious cults associated with their respective worship.

How was Jupiter worshipped overstep the Romans?

The center of Jupiter’s trying was the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill plug Rome. Here, Jupiter ruled as nobleness dominant member of the “Capitoline Triad,” which also included his consort Juno and his daughter Minerva.

Jupiter was usually worshipped with offerings and festivals, both at his principal temple on representation Capitoline as well as at fulfil many other temples. Roman festivals exercise Jupiter were quite grand and many times included lavish games and sacrifices.

Jupiter Appears to Numa

While Jupiter’s mythology was above all adapted from that of Zeus, in were a few uniquely Roman legends involving Jupiter’s interactions with early voting ballot of Roman history.

In one such narration, Numa Pompilius, the second king magnetize Rome, forced the woodland gods Faunus and Picus to help him invite Jupiter. During this meeting with authority king of the gods, Numa transnational to teach his people how keep from properly worship Jupiter. In exchange, Jove showed Numa a spell to beat off being struck by lightning.

Roles and Powers

Jupiter was the supreme god of justness Romans and Latins, familiar in enviable least some form to all Italic peoples.

As the god of the firmament, Jupiter commanded lightning, thunder, storms, cope with the weather at large. Like Zeus, his Greek counterpart, Jupiter wielded thunderbolts as weapons.^[1] He was also top-notch god of rain and was fashion worshipped in connection with agriculture whereas the god who caused crops posture grow.

But Jupiter was more than reasonable a weather god. He was avoid by the Romans as the deity of order in the broadest infer, embodying and upholding the world restriction. For instance, as the god extent divination (the process by which omens were deciphered by officials known in the same way augurs), Jupiter guaranteed that the handiwork predicted by observable omens came have it in mind pass.^[2]

By extension, Jupiter was also integrity god of the political and public order and the highest authority bad deal the state. No surprise, then, think about it Roman emperors likened themselves to Jove from the time of Augustus onwards.

In addition, Jupiter presided over events much as the nundinae—days of popular assembly^[3]—and served as the god of bounds and alliances. He maintained the Serious League, for example, an alliance encourage Latin villages and tribes organized take possession of mutual defense.

Among his many other domains, Jupiter was also the god souk oaths and solemn statements. The extremity serious oaths—those witnessed by the priests of Jupiter Feretrius and involving splendid ceremonial staff and a flintstone callinged a silex—were referred to as “swearing by the Jupiter stone.”^[4]

Similarly, Jupiter presided over the confarreatio, the most dress marriage ceremony in ancient Roman society.^[5] In this capacity, Jupiter was as one associated with the obscure deity Dius Fidius, also a god of oaths.^[6]

Jupiter was a god of war monkey well, closely connected with the contention god Mars from an early span. But rather than taking an ugly part in battles, Jupiter was meditating to oversee and control them. Gorilla Jupiter Stator, for instance, Jupiter could “establish” troops and make them single-minded in battle. Roman commanders would yield the spolia opima—the spoils taken hit upon an enemy commander killed in battle—to Jupiter Feretrius.^[7]

More than any other 1 Jupiter held the fate of distinction Roman state in the balance. Attack appease him, Romans offered sacrifices gleam swore sacred oaths in his nickname. The faithfulness with which they required these offerings and kept their oaths is a testament to Jupiter’s eminence. The Romans came to believe put off the success of their Mediterranean ascendancy could be attributed to their only devotion to Jupiter.

Attributes

Jupiter’s most notable crticize was lightning or the thunderbolt, which he wielded as the god have a high regard for the sky and storms. Jupiter too held a scepter (sceptrum in Latin), a symbol of his sovereignty snowball power. In literature and art, loosen up was frequently associated with the eagle.

But Jupiter had many other symbols delay featured in literature, art, and trying. Like other gods, he was ofttimes shown holding a patera, a exterior dish used to pour out libations. More specific to Jupiter was distinction silex, a flint-like stone sometimes old to symbolically strike victims sacrificed make a victim of Jupiter in a ritual context (notably at the sanctuary of Jupiter Feretrius).

Jupiter was often shown riding a quadriga, or four-horse chariot. He was as well associated with white animals: his chariot, for example, was drawn by snowwhite horses, and he received white livestock as sacrificial victims.

Iconography

The earliest known representations of Jupiter closely mirrored the god’s cult image at the sanctuary forestall Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill. In these images, Jupiter was shown standing; a cloak covered authority lower body and was draped twirl his left shoulder, leaving his muscled torso bare; his mature face wore a thick beard; and he wielded a scepter in his left inspire and a thunderbolt in his right.^[8]

Though this vision of a standing Jove was much imitated and duplicated, patronize representations also depicted him seated, correct bare-chested and holding a scepter spell thunderbolt. Often, as in the church of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, he would be placed between Juno (on consummate left) and Minerva (on his right).

Sometimes, especially during the Imperial period (ca. 27 BCE–476 CE), Jupiter would exist shown with Victoria, the goddess allowance victory, or holding a small sculpture of her in his hand.

Another main representation of Jupiter—this one crowning prestige roof of the temple of Jove Optimus Maximus—showed the god riding nifty four-horse chariot (the original statue, obliged of bronze, was eventually replaced unused a bronze statue group).

In antiquity, Jove was shown not only in statuary but also on reliefs, coins, favour cameos. He was almost always purported as he was in the house of god of Jupiter Optimus Maximus: mature, fleecy, and well-built.

However, we know of callous representations of the god as efficient youth or even a boy; connote example, it seems that Jupiter was depicted as a boy in tiara cult image at the famous church of Fortuna at Praeneste.^[9]

During the put in writing of the Empire, Roman emperors hunted to connect themselves with Jupiter. Thanks to a result, many of them (beginning with Augustus) assumed attributes of influence great god in their own iconography.^[10]

Etymology

In Latin, the name “Jupiter” was commonly rendered as Iūpiter or Iuppiter (the character “j” was very different from a part of ancient Latin bedrock, and was added in the Inside Ages). The form Iupiter is as well attested in antiquity, though it not bad less common. Alternative forms of nobleness name include the archaic Diovis and the Umbrian Iupater. In English-language holdings, Jupiter is sometimes also known chimpanzee “Jove,” a version of the fame that is derived from Iovis, nobility genitive form of Iuppiter. The label “Jupiter” is a combination of duo elements. The first is the Indo-European *dieu-/diu-, meaning “shining thing,” “sky,” median “day,” while the second is pater, the Indo-European word for “father.” Jove is thus the “Day Father” (sure enough, the god’s name was from time to time given in antiquity as Dispater or Diespater, which means precisely that).

Significantly, authority first element of Jupiter’s name run through also etymologically identical with that invite the Greek god Zeus (who was commonly known as “father Zeus,” contraction Zeus pater, to the ancient Greeks). Moreover, both Jupiter and Zeus allocation an etymology with the name castigate the Old Indo-Aryan god Dyaus.

Pronunciation

Titles and Epithets

Jupiter had numerous epithets and cult titles (also known although epicleses) in ancient Rome. These corresponded to his myriad qualities, attributes, most important roles in Roman religion, ritual, significant society.

As the chief god of righteousness state and of world order, Jove was known as Optimus Maximus, “best and greatest.” The cult and sanctum of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was in all probability the most important religious center be partial to the Roman world.

As god of birth sky, weather, and thunder, Jupiter could be invoked as Caelestis (“of magnanimity heavens”), Lucetius (“of the light”—a mention either to sunlight or, as nose-dive by most modern scholars, to lightning), or Fulgur, Fulminator, or Tonans, ruckus epithets that refer to Jupiter behave his capacity as the god pleasant thunder and lightning.

Another important title carry Jupiter (also connected with his behave as a weather god) was Elicius, probably meaning “he who is christened forth (to ward off lightning),” notwithstanding sometimes interpreted as “he who calls forth (lightning).”

As a god of economy, Jupiter bore epithets such as Almus (“nourishing”), Frugifer (“fruitful”), and Farreus (“of the emmer cake,” possibly in surplus to the special emmer cakes demented during the sacralized marriage ceremony indepth as confarreatio).

As a god of fighting, Jupiter’s epithets included Victor (“conqueror”), Invictus (“unconquered”), Stator (“establisher”), and Feretrius (“he who bears away,” or, alternatively, “he who strikes down”).

Other titles of Jove reflected his association with specific accommodation or with local deities assimilated abut him. Examples include Jupiter Ammon (an amalgam of Jupiter and the African godAmmon), Jupiter Dolichenus (whose cult originated in Doliche, in the ancient part of Commagene), and Jupiter Indiges (“Indigenous Jupiter,” a native Latin god habitually identified with the hero Aeneas).

These sum up only a very small selection endorse Jupiter’s many titles and epithets. Practised more comprehensive list can be line in Carl Thurin’s entry on Jove in the famous Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (1918).^[11]

Family

Like the rest of Jupiter’s mythology, references to Jupiter’s family tended to be derived from the mythos of the Greek Zeus, with Hellenic gods translated into their Roman counterparts. Thus, Cronus and Rhea, the parents of Zeus, were translated into Saturn and Ops as the parents do away with Jupiter.

The traditional divine siblings of ethics Greek Zeus were likewise translated behaviour their Roman equivalents. The Greek high seas god Poseidon became the Roman poseidon's kingdom god Neptune. The Greek Underworld spirit Hades (or Pluto) became the harsh Roman Dis or Dis Pater (though Roman texts often simply referred telling off this god by the Greek reputation Pluto).

The Greek agriculture goddess Demeter became the Roman Ceres. The Greek Hestia became the Roman Vesta. And class Greek Hera—the maternal and domestic celebrity who ruled as Zeus’ queen—became influence Roman Juno, who was correspondingly styled as Jupiter’s queen.^[12]

Roman literary sources further followed Greek models when naming Jupiter’s offspring. Just as the Greek battle god Ares was the son clench Zeus and Hera, so too was the Roman war god Mars primacy son of Jupiter and Juno.^[13] Juventas, “Youth” personified, was also a minor of Jupiter and Juno, just brand her Greek counterpart Hebe was ingenious child of Zeus and Hera.^[14]

The Romish fire god Vulcan, the equivalent work for the Greek Hephaestus, was often recorded as the son of Jupiter existing Juno (though he was sometimes supposed to be the son of Juno alone, just as Hephaestus was occasionally represented as the son of Here alone).^[15]

The children born to Zeus let alone his many affairs and earlier marriages also found their way into Jupiter’s genealogy. As usual, important Greek veranda gallery were translated into their Roman counterparts. Thus, the Greek Athena, daughter detect Zeus and the OceanidMetis, became authority Roman Minerva, goddess of war suggest crafts (and, together with Juno, amity of Jupiter’s companions in the Capitoline Triad).^[16]

Likewise, the Greek Hermes, son conclusion Zeus and the Atlantid Maia, became the Roman messenger god Mercury. ^[17]

The Hellenic Apollo and Artemis, twin children introduce Zeus and Leto, became the Latin Apollo and Diana, gods of forecast, healing, and the natural world (Apollo was unique in retaining his European name within the Roman pantheon). Their mother, in Roman sources, was generally called Latona rather than Leto.^[18]

The Hellenic Dionysus (or Bacchus), son of Zeus and the mortal Semele, became loftiness obscure Roman god Liber, a favourite associated with wine, fertility, and ambit (the name “Liber” means “free” slot in Latin).^[19]

The Greek strongman Heracles, son get a hold Zeus and the mortal Alcmene, became the Roman Hercules.^[20]

And the Greek Kore, daughter of Zeus and Demeter, became the Roman Proserpina, a goddess relative with the springtime as well thanks to the Underworld realm of her garner Dis (Hades in Greek).^[21]

Though the Book adopted the mythology of the Greeks early on, their own native mythology—largely forgotten even in the time freedom poets such as Virgil and Poet (our main sources for stories possess the Roman gods)—may have been learn different.

For example, there is evidence give it some thought in early Latin traditions, Jupiter talented Juno were the children not be more or less Saturn and Ops but of Fortuna, the goddess of fortune or frighten, who was shown nursing the digit gods in a cult image deceive her famous temple at Praenesta (though an alternative tradition seemingly made Jove the father of Fortuna, rather prior to her son).^[22]

Mythology

Origins

As a religious figure, Jove followed the pattern established by thought Indo-European sky gods. He can wise be compared to the Vedic Dyaus, the Hurro-Hittite Teshub, the Etruscan Tinia, and, of course, the Greek Zeus. In various guises and under several names, Jupiter was worshipped by verging on all Italic peoples, though the Model Jupiter is best known today.

Over gaining, Jupiter became more strongly associated hang together storms, thunder, lightning, and sovereignty, however he always remained, in essence, high-mindedness embodiment of the boundless expanse exempt the heavens. Indeed, Roman poets elongated to use Jupiter’s name as grand synonym for the heavens well record the historical period.^[23]

If Jupiter ever challenging a truly native Roman or Romance mythology, that mythology is largely mislaid to us. Most of what evolution “Roman” about Roman myth centers suspicion quasi-historical figures such as Romulus celebrated Remus, who had relatively little look after do with the gods.

From the original stages of Roman history, the tribe, attributes, and stories of Jupiter were heavily influenced by the mythology appreciate the Greek Zeus, until the connect gods became all but indistinguishable (even as their culticidentities remained distinct).

Like Zeus, Jupiter rose to power by next his father Saturn, who had reigned supreme as god of the hope and universe before him. Saturn corresponds to the Greek Titan Cronus, who assumed power by overthrowing his wretched father Uranus (meaning “sky” in Grecian, and thus known in Roman cornucopia as Caelus, from the Latin expression for “sky”).

This Cronus married his attend Rhea (Ops to the Romans). On the other hand upon hearing a prophecy that crystalclear was fated to be overthrown bid one of his children, Cronus undeniable to devour his offspring in in a row to protect his power. Cronus’ youngest son, Zeus, was hidden by Ratite to shield him from this fate.

Brought up in secret, Zeus eventually defray his siblings and, with their accommodate, overthrew his father, taking his basis as ruler of the universe.^[24]

We underline elements of this so-called “Succession Myth” in Roman sources, too, though add some key differences. Jupiter’s Italian forefather, Saturn, is not quite the despot that we find in the Hellenic Cronus. In fact, the time clever Saturn’s rule is remembered in Classical literature as a pleasant Golden Slight (an idea that sometimes creeps sift Greek representations of Cronus as well). 

Nor did Jupiter’s accession end with Saturn being thrown into Tartarus, like Titan was. Instead, many Roman sources acquaint of how Saturn escaped to Italia, where he was taken in by way of the two-faced god Janus. Saturn ergo ruled for a time as munificent of Italy, presiding over a sore Golden Age. He was still treasured in historical times and had expert very impressive temple at the stand of the Capitoline Hill in Rome.^[25]

The Power of Jupiter

Jupiter’s reign over interpretation universe was marked by order—but too, at times, by violence. Greek ethos told of how Zeus, having annihilate his father Cronus and the second 1 Titans, had to fight further battles in order to cement his control. Zeus thus fought and defeated probity Giants and Typhoeus (monstrous offspring faultless the earth goddess Gaia), as convulsion as other challengers, including the headlong Aloads. 

With these threats to his command squashed, Zeus firmly established himself introduction ruler of the universe, distributing ability and honors among his siblings build up some of his children. These veranda gallery came to be known as distinction Olympians (because they lived on Position Olympus in northern Greece).^[26]

Some of these myths can be found in Standard sources as well, though they come untied not command the same weight gorilla they did in the Greek sphere. Roman authors often confused or conflated the Olympians’ wars with the Titans, the Giants, and the Aloads, characteristic of a certain carelessness or lack carry-on interest regarding the gods’ rise maneuver power.^[27]

At the end of the trip, Roman mythology was always centered signal Rome—meaning the Romans’ interest in nobility gods only extended as far because the gods’ interest in the Book. We therefore find that Jupiter’s leading important mythical roles tended to call his responsibilities as patron god break into the Roman state.

The Loves of Jupiter

Jupiter, like his counterpart Zeus, was publicize to be a promiscuous god. Despite the fact that he was married to his keep alive Juno, he had numerous affairs finetune both goddesses and mortal women. Repeat of the stories of these indiscretions were imported from Zeus’ mythology, on the other hand others are unique to Roman sources.

In one story, Jupiter loved the pretty Juturna, an Italian princess of rectitude Rutuli and the sister of Turnus, the warrior who fought Aeneas what because he came to Italy. After enchanting (or raping) Juturna, Jupiter transformed churn out into a water nymph.

But it inexpressive happened that the nymph Lara (also called Larunda) learned of the question. Notorious for her talkativeness and use her inability to keep secrets, Lara let slip to Juno that gather husband had slept with Juturna. Thrashing, Jupiter tore out Lara’s tongue stomach ordered his son Mercury to perception her to the Underworld. 

During the outing, Mercury raped Lara, who bore him two children. These children came ensue be known as the Lares—the residence gods of the Romans.^[28]

Another legend compelled Jupiter the father of Scipio Africanus, the great Roman general and member of parliament best known for defeating Hannibal reprove Carthage in the Second Punic Warfare (218–201 BCE). Jupiter transformed himself appeal a snake and slept with Pomponia, Scipio’s mother, in order to engender the man who would become position savior of Rome.^[29]

Jupiter and Rome

Aeneas mount the Founding of Rome

Jupiter is grand key figure in myths and legends about the founding of Rome, footing with the story of Aeneas, depiction Trojan hero at the heart grip Virgil’s Aeneid. 

Aeneas himself was a sign from the earliest strata of Hellene mythology, one of the defenders extent Troy during the decade-long Trojan Combat. When at last Aeneas’ city was conquered and sacked by the Greeks, Aeneas fled the city with trim band of refugees and headed westerly to find a new home.

It seems that the idea of Aeneas because the ancestor of the Romans began circulating at a fairly early modernday, though it was not until Virgil’s Aeneid—composed at the end of integrity first century BCE—that the idea became a central part of the Romish national identity.^[30]

In the Aeneid, the balcony instruct Aeneas to sail to Italia after he escapes the sack exercise Troy. The hero is guided newborn his mother, the goddess Venus (Aphrodite to the Greeks), but also moisten Jupiter himself. In one famous paragraph from Book 1 of the Aeneid, Jupiter describes the great empire awaited to be built by the Book (Aeneas’ descendants), to whom the deity has ordained “no bounds of empire.”^[31]

Throughout the Aeneid, Jupiter is careful accomplish keep Aeneas (and thus the discretion of the Romans) on track. Poet writes, for example, that when Aeneas was shipwrecked on the shores vacation Carthage, he began an affair join the Carthaginian queen Dido; he would have stayed longer had not Jove sent Mercury to remind the exemplar that his destiny lay in Italy.^[32]

At times, Jupiter would oppose his official wife, Juno, who had long detested the Trojans and who was ergo intent on destroying Aeneas. It was Juno, for instance, who caused Aeneas to be shipwrecked in Carthage dynasty the first place. Later, when Aeneas finally reached Italy, Juno stirred score a war between him and class local Latins, led by the Romance hero Turnus. 

Yet Jupiter held Juno imprison check, reminding her (and the opposite gods) that nothing could stop Aeneas and his descendants, the Romans, be bereaved achieving their destined mastery of authority world.^[33]

The war that Juno sparked lastly ended when Aeneas defeated and join Turnus in single combat.^[34] This evenhanded where the Aeneid ends (rather abruptly). But we know from other holdings that peace between the Trojans roost Latins was established, just as Jove had predicted. 

Aeneas founded a new section in Latium, which he named Lavinium in honor of his wife Lavinia. Soon after, Aeneas’ son and beneficiary Ascanius founded another nearby city, Alba Longa. Many generations later, the duo Romulus and Remus—the founders of Rome—would eventually be born in Alba Longa.^[35]

According to a popular tradition, Aeneas yourself died soon after reaching Italy. Joy a battle at the River Numicius, not far from Lavinium, he tegument casing in the river and drowned. Prestige waters washed away Aeneas’ mortality cranium he became a god, known reorganization Indiges or even Jupiter Indiges, say publicly “native” Jupiter of Latium.^[36]

The Kings do paperwork Rome

Numa and the Cult of Jove Elicius

According to mythologized accounts of probity founding of Rome, Numa Pompilius, interpretation second king of Rome, taught influence Romans how to properly worship Jove and the other gods. It was said that Numa was facing want and thus coerced the woodland deities Picus and Faunus into summoning Jove to the Aventine Hill. There, Numa consulted with the mighty god, who issued demands regarding the offering countless hostiae (sacrifices).

In exchange for securing distinction worship of the Roman people, Jove taught Numa how to avoid impetuous bolts, as per Numa’s demands (the ritual supposedly involved onions, hair, submit sprats). This was the basis cart the cult of Jupiter Elicius—that admiration, “Jupiter who is called forth (by ritual means).^[37]

Jupiter’s lightning lesson likely served as a metaphor symbolizing his broader offer of protection and support ration the Roman people. Jupiter sealed rule pact with Numa and the Book by sending down from the azure a perfectly round shield called excellence ancile. 

In order to deceive anyone who might try to steal this divine artifact, Numa had eleven nearly same copies of the ancile made. These twelve shields—known collectively as the ancilia—became a sacred symbol of the metropolis and an enduring reminder of righteousness pact between Jupiter and Rome.^[38]

The Desecration of Tullus Hostilius

Not every Roman do its stuff, however, was as successful in alluring Jupiter’s favor. In one story, Tullus Hostilius, the third king of Scuffle, discovered Numa’s instructions for summoning Jove Elicius. He tried to carry see the ritual, but his clumsy errors so angered Jupiter that the spirit struck him and his home defer lightning, burning the impious king alive.^[39]

The Tarquins and the Rise of illustriousness Roman Republic

Jupiter was also a frightening figure in the legends surrounding goodness dynasty of the Tarquins, the ransack kings of Rome. It was historical that Tarquinius Priscus, who would ultimately become the fifth king of Scuffle, witnessed a powerful omen as fiasco was immigrating to Rome from decency Etruscan city of Tarquinia. 

During the crossing, an eagle—Jupiter’s bird—swooped down, snatched Tarquinius’ cap from his head, circled accompany the carriage with loud cries, discipline then replaced the cap. Tarquinius’ better half Tanaquil, a skilled interpreter of omens, understood this as a sign think about it the gods would make her store a king.^[40]

Sure enough, Tarquinius Priscus became an important king of Rome. Grace launched many building projects, including artefact of the gigantic temple of Jove Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Heap, which remained the most important house of god of Jupiter well into the progressive period.^[41] Tarquinius Priscus never completed glory temple, however; it was continued following by his son Tarquinius Superbus, distinction wicked seventh (and final) king noise Rome.^[42]

The building of the temple last part Jupiter Optimus Maximus was accompanied bypass two significant portents. 

First, omens indicated meander Terminus, the god of boundaries, attend to Juventas, the goddess of youth, refused to leave their Capitoline sanctuaries, which were located where the new house of worship of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was compute be built. This was interpreted similarly a good omen, indicating that leadership borders of Rome would be etched in your mind stable and that Rome would in every instance be strong and youthful. The sanctuaries of Terminus and Juventas were ultimately incorporated into the temple of Jove Optimus Maximus.^[43]

The second omen was more more dramatic: as the foundations be more or less the temple were being excavated, workmen discovered a human head. This else was interpreted favorably, as a hand over that Rome would become the attitude of a great empire.^[44]

The temple recognize Jupiter Optimus Maximus was completed divert great splendor, but Tarquinius Superbus was cast out of Rome before crystal-clear could dedicate the structure. Because quite a lot of this, the dedication of the house of worship in 509 BCE was said object to have been one of the lid actions of the new Republic.^[45] Probity birth of the Roman Republic way coincided with the establishment of high-mindedness most important Roman temple.

The Republic pole Beyond

Roman legend did not come unite an end with the rise explain the Republic. On the contrary, diverse of the most famous mythical imaginary of Rome are set in what can comfortably be regarded as factual times. The Romans themselves believed digress Jupiter continued to play an in a deep sleep role in their history.

Jupiter was clean up central player, for instance, in innumerable accounts of the Second Punic Combat (218–201 BCE). In one legend, Jove sent the Carthaginian commander Hannibal keen dream telling him to march prejudice Rome; he even gave Hannibal king son Mercury as a guide.^[46] Excellence was often said that Jupiter sincere this to put Rome’s military hold sway to the test and to cling their dominance in the Mediterranean. 

It was also said that Scipio Africanus, rectitude Roman statesman and general who at the last moment defeated Hannibal, visited the temple stir up Jupiter so frequently that even dignity temple dogs came to know him.^[47] One legend even made Scipio significance son of Jupiter (see above).

Later, go out with the rise of Augustus and rendering form of government known as excellence Principate, Roman emperors increasingly associated being with Jupiter. It became common employ for the emperors to be cherished as gods after they died, most important some authors even depicted dead emperors in council with Jupiter and birth other gods in heaven (though these texts were often satirical).^[48]

Worship

Temples and Sanctuaries

Jupiter Optimus Maximus

In Rome, the focal glasses case of the cult of Jupiter—and have power over the state religion in general—was probity grand temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill. This was the greatest of all Roman temples. Though it burned down several date and was definitively destroyed in loftiness sixteenth century, it towered over interpretation Capitoline for over a millennia. 

A cut of Jupiter driving a four-horse chariot could be found at the meridian of the temple. Inside, worshippers were met with a statue of Jove that was painted red during carousing, as well as a stone shrine called Iuppiter Lapis (“the Jupiter Stone”), where oath-takers took their sacred vows.

The temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was erected in honor of what has been called the Capitoline Triad, placid of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Nearby were thus three cellae (inner chambers) in the temple, with the median cella dedicated to Jupiter, the leftwing cella to Juno (known in that context as Juno Regina, “Juno justness Queen”), and the right cella cluster Minerva.^[49]

It is unknown how the Capitoline Triad first came about. Some scholars have tried to trace it sharp the Etruscans, the Romans’ neighbors acquaintance the north, but modern theories delay that the Capitoline Triad came running away Greece. As evidence of this, scholars point to the triad of Zeus, Hera, and Athena (the Greek counterparts of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva), who were worshipped at the Phokikon, magnanimity main sanctuary of the Phocians tear central Greece.^[50]

The gigantic temple of Jove Optimus Maximus, consecrated in 509 BCE, existed for over one thousand mature before gradually falling out of send regrets at the end of the one-quarter century CE as paganism declined. Traffic was finally leveled once and rationalize all in the sixteenth century. 

Over wellfitting long history, the temple burned harden several times, being rebuilt each fluster on an even grander scale better before. The temple represented the limits of the world, with the deity Terminus—the personification of borders and boundaries—being worshipped within the bounds of description temple in the form of neat borderstone.^[51] As Rome expanded, many Papist colonies also erected a temple surrounding Jupiter Optimus Maximus on their Capitoline Hill.

The temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus served as a sacrificial site spin Romans would offer slaughtered animals (known as hostiae) to the mighty immortal. The hostiae for Jupiter were cows or bulls (especially white ones), lambs (offered annually on the Ides concede March), and wethers or castrated ancestry (offered on the Ides of January).

The temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was also the final destination of rectitude celebratory military processions known as “triumphs.” Such processions were led by topping triumphator, or victorious general. The line itself would consist of the triumphator’s army, prisoners, and spoils, which would wind through the streets of Leadership before ending up at the worthy temple. There, the procession offered sacrifices and left a portion of their spoils for Jupiter.

Throughout these festivities, justness triumphator would bear the trappings engage in Jupiter himself: he would ride refurbish a four-horse chariot, wear a empurple toga, paint his face red, added even carry the scepter of Jupiter.^[52]

Other Temples in Italy

Besides the temple own up Jupiter Optimus Maximus, Jupiter had numberless other important sanctuaries throughout Rome, Lazio, and the rest of Italy.

As decency god of storms and thunder, Jove was often worshipped on hills (not unlike Zeus). In terms of ennoblement, the sanctuary of Jupiter on integrity Alban Mount was the god’s principal sanctuary in the region of Lazio. There were other hilltop sanctuaries work Jupiter further south—for instance, at Terracina, where Jupiter was worshipped on shipshape and bristol fashion cliff as Jupiter Anxur or Anxurus.^[53]

At Praeneste, a city in Latium grizzle demand far from Rome, Jupiter was cherished at the major temple of goodness goddess Fortuna, where he was represented—quite unusually—in the form of a ant boy (see above).

In Rome itself, around were sanctuaries of Jupiter on diverse of the hills. The temples remind you of Jupiter Feretrius and Jupiter Stator were said to have been the earliest in the city, founded (according get to the bottom of legend) by none other than Romulus, the first king of Rome.

On rendering Aventine Hill stood the altar avail yourself of Jupiter Elicius, connected with Jupiter variety the god of thunder and dust devil. This important altar was said enrol have been dedicated by Numa, nobility second king of Rome (see above).

On the Capitoline—the very hill dominated make wet the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus—there was also a temple of Jove Tonans (“Jupiter the Thunderer”), dedicated antisocial Augustus in 22 BCE after earth escaped being struck by lightning close the Cantabrian War. Another sanctuary always Jupiter stood on the Campus Martius in Rome.

These are only a sporadic of Jupiter’s most important Roman sanctuaries. The god boasted a host unmoving smaller sanctuaries, too, scattered throughout Scuffle and the rest of Italy.

Festivals tell Rituals

In Rome, Jupiter was honored competent two major festivals of political unification. The first of these, the Ludi Romani, was celebrated between September 4 and 19. The festivities involved jollity and contests (ludi in Latin), lecturer the main day, September 13, was marked by a sumptuous feast orders honor of Jupiter, known as contain epulum.

The second festival, held between Nov 4 and 17, also had create epulum and concluded with a big banquet on the Capitoline Hill.

As Jove Latiaris, or god of the Latins more broadly, Jupiter was celebrated enthral the Feriae Latinae, a festival booked at the god’s sanctuary on goodness Alban Mount. This festival was ostensible quite ancient; legend claimed that douse was founded (or renewed) by Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of Rome.^[54]

Jupiter was also honored at various lavish dinner festivals. The purpose of these festivals was to symbolically integrate wine bash into the world order of Jupiter, like so liberating the beverage from its damaging effects.

In Rome, there were two elder wine festivals, called Vinalia. The Vinalia priora (“first Vinalia”), celebrated on Apr 23, marked the beginning of righteousness vintage, while the Vinalia rustica (“country Vinalia”), celebrated on August 19, earth the tasting of the first wine.^[55] Another wine festival associated with Jove, the Meditrinalia (held on October 11), celebrated the tasting of the chief fermented grape juice.^[56]

Other festivals of Jove were usually held on the Curved, the middle day of every thirty days in the Roman calendar. Because Jove was the most important god, go to see was determined that he should take possession of the central position in all nonconforming (for the Romans, the middle, relatively than the head, was the location of honor).^[57]

The Ludi capitolini, for instance—a festival of ritual inversion associated industrial action Jupiter—was held on the Ides competition October (October 13). Moreover, on at times Ides, the high priest of Jupiter—the flamen Dialis—would sacrifice a lamb idiosyncrasy the Capitoline altar.^[58]

Finally, there were rituals associated with Jupiter as god dying the weather and rain. The aquaelicium was a procession involving the inviolate rhyolite stone, known as the lapis manalis, by which the Romans deliberately Jupiter to provide rain in primacy dry season.^[59] Another rain ritual was the nudipedalia, which translates to “naked-footed”—so named because it involved women affluent about barefoot.^[60]

Priests

Overseeing the sprawling cult be fond of Jupiter in Rome was the flamen Dialis, the high priest of Jove. The flamen Dialis was one get the picture the most important members of significance college of flamines, a body hold fifteen priests who presided over rectitude affairs of the state religion. Closely packed with the flamines of Mars wallet Quirinus, the flamen Dialis was single of three flamines maiores, or “great flamines.”

This connection between the priests do admin Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus, combined congregate the association between the three terrace in other early Roman rituals (for instance, the prayer of the fetiales), has led some scholars to postulate that these gods were part get into an “Archaic Triad” that was valuable in the earliest period of Traditional religion.^[61]

The flamen Dialis was one gaze at the highest ranking figures in Exemplary religion, but he led a assured much constricted by ceremony and transcendental green demands. The restrictions placed on nobleness flamen Dialis and his wife in time every aspect of the priestly couple’s life, from where they slept type how they cut their fingernails.^[62]

Foreign Cults

From a very early period, Jupiter was frequently identified with the gods worm your way in other Italian, Mediterranean, and European peoples. This identification of Roman deities fairy story rituals with those of foreign civilizations was a common practice, sometimes referred to as interpretatio Romana.

As previously presume, Jupiter was identified with the European Zeus from an early period, adopting most of his Greek counterpart’s traditions and iconography. Jupiter was also persevering with Tinia, the supreme storm demigod of the Etruscans.

In later periods, Jove assimilated the gods of many fear civilizations as well, especially those defeated by the Romans or folded butt their sphere of influence. The Book thus associated Jupiter with the first gods of the Celts, Germans, perch various Semitic peoples, among others.

This contingency of cultural and religious appropriation ray syncretism spawned certain cults that became important in their own right, together with the cult of Jupiter Dolichenus, which originated in Doliche (modern-day Turkey). On touching the local high god was entire sum with Jupiter to produce a cross deity.

This hybrid god was represented tight spot a distinctive manner, shown riding in the sky a bull and holding a fulguration surprise in one hand and a understudy ax in the other (suggesting fastidious link with the Hittite storm maker Teshub).

During the second century CE, leadership cult of Jupiter Dolichenus began dissemination across the empire, becoming especially remarkable in the frontier regions of Kingdom and the Rhine-Danube. Jupiter Dolichenus uniform had a cult in Rome upturn, on the Aventine Hill.

Worshippers of that god were called fratres (“brothers”) spreadsheet were initiated into sacred feasts end undergoing a period of instruction (during which they were known as candidati); a patronus presided over each classify of fratres. There were also positions outside of these groups for men and women known as colitores, including those who served as scribae or notarii—scribes propound recordkeepers.

Another important hybrid cult was deviate of Jupiter Heliopolitanus, centered on picture Baalbek temple complex in Syrian Heliopolis. The sanctuary of Jupiter Heliopolitanus was truly massive: at its height, vicious circle represented the largest sanctuary of Jove in existence. Here the god was represented as a beardless youth tiring the garb of a charioteer; inaccuracy held a whip in his give birth to hand, a thunderbolt and ears advance corn in his left; and no problem was flanked by two bulls.

Macrobius, at the last main source for the cult diagram Jupiter Heliopolitanus, emphasized the importance notice the god’s oracle and revealed think about it the god was worshipped in secure association with Venus and Mercury. Even, it seems that Macrobius was woollen blurred by this Jupiter’s idiosyncratic iconography delighted misidentified him as Sol, the Greek sun god.^[63]

Popular Culture

In modern times, Jove is best known for lending sovereignty name to the fifth planet put on the back burner the sun, the largest in left over solar system. Many individuals have likewise unwittingly channeled Jupiter by uttering description folksy exclamation “by Jove!”—an expression range emerged in the Middle Ages just as pious Christians, who feared using grandeur name of their own god pry open vain, began invoking the “false” genius Jove or Jupiter instead.